Summary of Uses of Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2)

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is a two-dimensional layered material composed of two chemical elements, molybdenum and sulfur, with excellent optical, electrical, magnetic, mechanical and thermal properties. It is widely used in energy storage, catalysis, semiconductor, lubrication and other fields. Its main uses are as follows:

1. As an additive for solid lubricants: MoS2 powder is known as “king of solid lubrication", the friction coefficient is between 0.05 and 0.09, and has the advantages of good dispersion, non-sticking and anti-oxidation, etc. It can be added to various greases to form a non-stick colloidal state, which can increase the lubricity and extreme pressure properties of the grease, making it more suitable for high temperature, high pressure, high speed, and high load applications.

2. As a modifier for lithium-ion battery electrode materials: MoS2 is a low-dimensional transition metal layered material with a large distance between layers, which endows it with high lithium ion accommodation capacity and wide ion transport channels. Combined with graphene, it can effectively make up for the lack of low storage capacity of existing pure graphite anode materials.

3. As a catalyst: Because of its high catalytic activity, good chemical stability, preferentially exposed active sites, and long-range/short-range ordered atomic arrangement, MoS2 is expected to replace noble metal platinum to achieve electrochemical hydrogen evolution reaction.

4. Making transistors: Ultra-thin MoS2 transistors with a length of less than 100 nanometers provide greater possibilities for the large-scale popularization of high-performance flexible electronic products such as medical monitors, fitness trackers, smart clothing and foldable smartphones.

5. Used in bionic eyes: Indium-doped molybdenum disulfide has the characteristics of ultra-low power consumption optical synapses, which can effectively reduce the power consumption of bionic eyes and solve the problem of difficult surface processing and integration.

6. For the treatment of joint pain: MoS2 coating is the key material of "targeted nanoprobe" in the nanotechnology of osteoarthritis targeted analgesic diagnosis and treatment.

7. Used in-situ gelation system: A new in-situ gelation system designed by Texas A&M University that does not require photoinitiators uses the photothermal properties of MoS2 and the inherent phase change ability of thermally responsive polymers. Near-infrared radiation activates dynamic polymer-nanomaterial interactions.

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What Are Excellent Properties of Molybdenum Disulfide in High Temperature Grease?

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is a naturally occurring black solid compound that is slippery to the touch. It transfers easily and adheres to other solid surfaces it comes in contact with. Its mineral form -- called molybdenite -- was often confused with graphite until the late 1700s. Both have been used for lubricating and writing materials for centuries.

So, what are the excellent properties of MoS2 in high temperature grease?

1)it can improve the bearing capacity of the grease and make the bearing capacity of the grease higher; 2) To enhance the effective performance of the grease, the grease added with moly disulfide has better performance and wider application range; 3)it can improve the high temperature performance of the grease, and the solid lubricant has the performance of bearing high temperature.

Let's take a look at the application fields of molybdenum disulfide grease:

1. Suitable for lubrication of sliding and rolling bearings, chains and gears under various high temperature, medium speed and heavy load conditions.

2. Suitable for the lubrication of rolling bearings under high temperature, low speed and heavy load conditions, such as the lubrication of kiln axles such as ceramics, electric porcelain, brick and tile tunnel kilns, and chains and bearings of some baking equipment. 

3. Suitable for lubrication of chains, bearings or gears in high temperature ovens, drying machinery, etc.

4. Suitable for the lubrication of chains and bearings of stretching tenters and heat-setting machines. 

5. Suitable for lubrication and noise reduction of large motors and high temperature drying room transmission bearings.

6. Suitable for high temperature heating furnaces, including cloth frame, lithography and enamel metal frame furnaces.

Chinatungsten produces moly disulfide specially used for lubricating grease according to the particularity of the grease industry, and strictly controls the particle size, particle size dispersion, water and other indicators. The products have been recognized by well-known enterprises in the world, and have reached long-term and stable cooperative relations.

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What Are Functions of Molybdenum Disulfide in Fluoroplastics Industry?

What are applications of plastic in daily life? 

1,General purpose plastics: large output, wide application, good formability and low price. Widely used in daily necessities, packaging materials and small mechanical parts. Its output accounts for about 90% of the world's total plastics, also known as bulk plastics, most of which are thermoplastics.

2,Special plastics: plastics with special properties in a certain aspect used in special environments, also known as functional plastics, such as medical plastics, magnetically conductive plastics, thermally conductive plastics, superconducting plastics, radiation-resistant plastics, high-temperature plastics, etc. These plastics have small output, high price and excellent performance.

3,Engineering plastics: plastics that can be used as engineering structural materials with excellent mechanical properties, can withstand mechanical stress in a wide temperature range and are used in harsh chemical and physical environments. Small output, high price, excellent chemical properties, wear resistance, heat resistance, corrosion resistance, self-lubrication and dimensional stability, this kind of plastic also has some metal properties, which can replace some metal materials for the manufacture of structural parts and transmission parts. They are widely used in machinery manufacturing, light industry, electronics, aerospace, missiles, atomic energy and other industrial fields.

What are functions of molybdenum disulfide in the plastic industry? 

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is a wear-resistant additive mainly used in nylon plastics. It acts as a crystallizing agent to improve the crystallinity of nylon and make the nylon material form a hard and wear-resistant surface. This kind of powder has high affinity with metals. After being adsorbed on the metal surface, the molecules of moly disulfide will block the microscopic pores on the metal surface that can only be seen by a microscope, making the metal surface smoother. In this regard, MoS2 is an ideal wear-resistant additive for nylon-metal friction.

The global plastics industry is large and growing. Driven by new products such as gas storage tanks, shipping tanks and clear plastic containers, the growing demand for larger parts with more complex designs and better performance will continue to require more injection molding equipment and tooling. Moly disulfide will continue to function as it always has, providing the fluoroplastics industry with greater strength, stability, durability and high surface quality.

Chinatungsten Online/CTIA GROUP LTD is a professional manufacturer of tungsten and molybdenum. If you have got the purchasing plans for them, please feel free to contact us. 

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Molybdenum Disulfide Is Used in Machinery Equipment as Lubricants

When machinery equipment is in motion, friction and wear are almost inevitable on the surfaces between relatively moving parts. The use of lubricants is an effective technical measure to control friction, reduce wear, and maintain the original accuracy of machinery and equipment.

Reasonable selection of lubricating materials can control the friction of the two moving surfaces, slow down the wear and protect them from damage. The surface film formed by the solid lubricant of molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) has this function. 

MoS2 is the main component of molybdenite, which is a black solid powder with metallic luster. It is a very important solid lubricant, especially suitable for high temperature and high pressure. The powder has the advantages of good dispersibility and non-sticking. It can be added to various greases to form a non-sticky colloidal state, which can increase the lubricity and extreme pressure of the grease. It is also suitable for high-temperature, high-pressure, high-speed and high-load mechanical working conditions to extend the life of the equipment.

Place the solid lubrication on the surfaces of the two friction pairs of machinery equipment, and rely on the mechanical action between their friction surfaces to form a layer of molybdenum disulfide surface film with a high degree of adhesion attached to the solid surface, which can reduce or eliminate the direct contact between the two surfaces, reduce the friction and wear of the moving pair surface in the mechanical equipment, and extend the service life of the equipment.

The special MoS2 for coatings provided by Chinatungsten Online has a finer particle size, reaching sub-micron level, more uniform distribution, more concentrated particle size, and has good dispersibility and surface activity, which is suitable for uniform coverage on the surface of the grinding wheel.

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Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2) Boosts the Development of New Energy Vehicles

In recent years, new energy vehicles have shown a momentum of rapid development along with policy guidance, influx of funds and improvements in technology. Oil is the most important product in the lubricating grease industry with engine oil accounting for more than half of the total lubricating oil products. The development of new energy vehicles will definitely have a huge impact on this industry.

Compared with traditional fuel vehicles, this kind of vehicle only reduces engine oil. Other gear oils, greases, transmission oils in the transmission system, coolants, brake oils, and automotive auxiliary products are also needed. In addition, the current automobile design structure has little change in the quality requirements of lubricants, and most of them are still using the original varieties.

With the development of technology, the new vehicles may go out of their own way, and the working environment and system of lubricants will be more complicated and professional. OEMs will put forward their own requirements for lubricants and grease companies, such as insulation performance, electrical performance, safety performance, high temperature performance, high speed performance, corrosion performance, environmental protection performance, etc.

High-viscosity, longer oil change intervals and compatible products that adapt to more complex lubricating oil systems will be the future trend of automotive lubricants

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is known as the "King of Solid Lubrication". With the characteristics of good dispersion, strong chemical stability, high temperature resistance, extreme pressure resistance, etc., it is widely used as an additive in lubricating grease and other industries.

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Why Can Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2) Be Used as Solid Lubrication

As we all know, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is very popular in the world as solid lubrication. In the mid-19th century of the California Gold Rush, it was firstly used as a lubricant for carriage bearings.

During World War II, the Max Planck Institute in Germany and the National Aeronautics Commission, the predecessor of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States, conducted experiments on the use of MoS2 for industrial applications and developed organic bonding solid lubricating film. By the early 1950s, the United States formulated the US military standard for this material and regarded it as a military secret.

Subsequently, molybdenum disulfide sputtering film and ion plating film appeared one after another. In emerging industrial sectors and emerging technical fields, solid lubrication is gradually being applied. For example, in electronic machinery based on robots and electronic computers, its main lubrication parts are commonly used PTFE and lubricants.

As a solid additive, how can this material play its lubricating effect? 

Actually, its good lubricating performance is closely related to its crystal structure. The bonding force between the sulfur atoms and molybdenum atoms in each molecular layer is very strong while the bonding force between the sulfur atoms and the molybdenum atoms between the molecules is very weak. as a result, a low-shear plane is formed. When a small shear force is applied between them, it is easy to break along the molecular layer and form a slip surface.

For example, there are 800 molecular layers and 799 slip surfaces in a surface film with a thickness of 0.5 μm. These numerous sliding surfaces convert the original relative sliding direct contact between the two metal surfaces into relative sliding of the moly disulfide molecular layer, thereby reducing the friction factor and reducing wear. MoS2, under some special preparation conditions, can react with the metal surface under extreme conditions to form a protective film.

Chinatungsten is committed to producing molybdenum disulfide powder and would be honored to offer you our products no matter in which industry. 

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Molybdenum Disulfide Is Used as an Additive in Lubricating Grease and Coating

With the advance of modern science, technology and industry, machinery and equipment require to be highly mechanized, automated, super-large, high-precision, high-parameter, and can be used in special working conditions. Accordingly, general lubricating grease can no longer meet its lubrication requirements.

The appeal of solid lubricants promoted the lubrication technology to a new stage. This new lubricant has many superior properties, such as high temperature resistance, radiation resistance, high vacuum resistance, corrosion resistance, etc., and has been widely used in high-speed flight, astronautics, electronics industry, chemical industry, machinery industry at home and abroad.

There are many types of solid lubricants, such as graphite, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), graphite fluoride, tungsten disulfide, boron nitride and so on. At present, the most widely used is molybdenum disulfide, and the best properties are boron nitride and fluorinated graphite.

MoS2 is entitled as "King of Lubrication". It is solid powder made from natural molybdenum concentrate with the advantages of anti-wear, anti-friction, high temperature resistance, extreme pressure resistance, etc. Nowadays, it is widely used as an additive in lubricating grease, powder metallurgy, modified plastics, coating and other industries and is becoming an indispensable and irreplaceable industrial additive product.

Boron nitride is a crystal composed of nitrogen atoms and boron atoms. It is used as high-temperature lubricants, mold release agents, high-frequency insulating materials, and solid-phase doping materials for semiconductors. It can be also used as high-temperature lubricants and a mold release agent for a model.

Graphite fluoride is synthesized by the "gas phase method" from the extremely toxic elemental gas fluorine with extremely high activity, which is dangerous and difficult. It is an important inorganic non-metallic material with excellent lubricity and is used as an active material for batteries and electrodes.

Chinatungsten Online is committed to producing tungsten and molybdenum products and MoS2 powder is one of the most popular products in our company. 

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Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2) Applied in High Temperature Grease

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is a well-known solid lubricant that is not only used popularly in aerospace and military applications, but also is common in various lubricating applications. It is widely used in greases and special grease products like pastes, in fluid lubricants such as automotive and industrial gear oils, in solid film lubricants, including but not limited to polishing film, sputter coating, resin bonding and impingement coatings. 

High temperature grease is a high-quality ultra-high temperature grease containing high-component molybdenum disulfide. It is specially made of high-quality base oil and organic thickening agent, no dropping point, does not melt at high temperatures, and does not coke or deposit carbon under high temperature conditions. Moly hi-temp grease has excellent mechanical, thermal stability and chemical resistance, which is suited to the harsh environment with wide contact temperature range and humidity.

Molybdenum disulfide high temperature grease can be applied in various ordinary and anti-friction bearings and all other bearing surfaces, such as sliding surfaces, thrust bearings, rotary joints, heavy-duty thermal sliding sleeves and anti-friction bearings, especially suitable for high temperature lubrication in humid environment and chemical plant equipment. Its applicable range can reach -18°C ~204°C. 

Lithium molybdenum disulfide grease produced with mineral oil, its operating temperature is -20℃~120℃. A better molybdenum disulfide grease uses complex soap, called molybdenum disulfide complex lithium-based grease, its use temperature is -20℃~160℃. At present, the most advanced technology adopts synthetic base oil to produce fully synthetic molybdenum disulfide high temperature grease, its operating temperature is -40℃~220℃.

Chinatungsten Online is a professional manufacturer of tungsten and molybdenum for more than two decades, the molybdenum disulfide we offer is used for various kinds of lubricating greases. The most common specifications are large particle, technical grade, technical fine and super fine. The selected particle size mainly depends on the actual applications. Meanwhile, if you have other requirements, kindly feel free to contact us. 

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Molybdenum Disulfide Enables Good Lubrication for Carbon Motor Brushes

The brush is a kind of conductive component that plays an important role in sending electrical current between motionless and rotating parts by sliding contact. Due to its good electrical, thermal and lubricating properties as well as a certain mechanical strength and the instinct to inhibit commutation sparks, all most all DC motors and commutation motors use brushes. Typical applications include electric motors, alternators and electric generators.

Since the performance of the brush has significant impact of the performance of rotating machine, the choice of brush is a critical factor. Usually, carbon motor brushes have special requirements for resistivity and contact resistance, and requires good sliding contact characteristics such as friction coefficient, wear resistance. 

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is the most famous of the single layer transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) family. It has been used in bulk for many years as a solid state lubricant, this is due to its low coefficient of friction in addition to its high chemical and thermal stability. MoS2 can maintain a very good lubrication effect in mechanical parts that operate in vacuum. 

When the brush contains a certain amount of molybdenum disulfide. Although it is difficult to form a cuprous oxide film at high altitude, it can form a sulfide film with good lubricating effect. This film is tightly adsorbed on the surface of the slip ring, so that the brush still has good lubricating performance at high altitude. In addition, molybdenum disulfide has good water resistance and pressure resistance.

Molybdenum disulfide is also an ideal solid lubricating material in the aerospace field. It has a very low friction coefficient and a high yield strength. Therefore, combining the characteristics of the two, the development of a silver-based brush composite material with high conductivity, low friction factor and good mechanical properties is an urgent need for electrical contact components in the aerospace industry.

Chinatungsten online produces professional molybdenum disulfide that is suitable for the electric brush industry, strictly controlling the particle size, water, acid value and other indicators. Our MoS2 can be for a variety of customer needs and purposes. 

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Molybdenum Disulfide Is One of the Ideal Materials for Transistors and Chips

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is considered to be the most promising alternative to silicon due to its unique single-layer atomic structure and excellent photoelectric properties, and becomes one of the ideal materials for future applications in high-precision technology fields such as semiconductors, transistors, and chips. Therefore, in recent years, scientists have maintained a strong interest in the exploration and research of molybdenum disulfide.

Recently, the EPFL research team used molybdenum disulfide to develop a new type of "brain-like neuron transmission" computer chip, which has the ability to process and store information in the same circuit, and realize small size for computer equipment. It provides new ideas for optimization, high efficiency and energy saving.

Molybdenum disulfide is a transition metal chalcogenide two-dimensional material (TMDC). It has a graphene-like layered structure and has the characteristics of a direct band gap semiconductor that graphene does not have. Molybdenum disulfide is composed of three atomic plane layers (S-Mo-S) stacked. It has a large specific surface area, high electron migration rate, anti-magnetic resistance to radiation, low energy consumption, environmental protection, energy saving and efficiency, and high stability. And can achieve large-scale production, is an ideal material for optical and electronic equipment.

For the first time, EPFL researchers have successfully applied the two-dimensional material molybdenum disulfide to a chip that integrates data storage and logic operations. This will subvert the traditional computer model of processing data by the central processing unit (CPU) and then transmitting it to the hard disk for storage. 

According to reports, the new chips are based on floating gate field effect transistors (FGFETs) and are usually used in flash memory systems for cameras, mobile phones or computer equipment. These transistors can hold charge for a long time, and molybdenum disulfide with a thickness of only three atomic layers can not only further reduce the volume of electronic devices, but also has a strong sensitivity to the charge stored in the transistor, so logic operations can be implemented as well as data storage function.

Chinatungsten Online's molybdenum disulfide not only has great application potential in optical and electronic fields such as semiconductors and nano-transistors, but also can be used as lubricants, antioxidants, catalysts, etc., and is widely used in aviation, automobiles, mining, shipbuilding, bearings and other industrial fields. 

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Molybdenum Disulfide Is Used in Brake Pad as an Anti-friction Additive

 As a good anti-friction additive, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is essential for producing brake pads. The composition of raw materials of brake pads includes four parts: binder, reinforcing fiber, friction performance modifier, and filler. 

There are two type of friction performance modifier. The first one is anti-friction materials. Its addition can improve the friction resistance of the material, reduce noise and friction coefficient. Graphite, molybdenum disulfide, lead, and copper belong to the material. The second one is frictional materials. Its addition can increase the friction coefficient of the material. Most inorganic fillers, some metals and their oxides are included in this category. The friction performance modifier mainly adjusts the thermal stability of the material and its working stability.

MoS2 has advantages of good dispersion, wear resistance and noise reduction, which is widely used in many fields. Its performances in the brake pad as a friction modifier additive as following: 

A.Friction reduction

The regular particle size of MoS2 is 1.1-30 μm with 0.04-0.06 friction coefficient and excellent dispersion to make sure good friction reduction. 

B.Friction enhancement

When the friction temperature of friction material increases sharply, molybdenum disulfide oxidizes to form molybdenum trioxide, which expands with the increase of air temperature and then increases friction.

C.Oxidation resistance and anti shedding

Molybdenum disulfide is slightly acidic. It covers the surface of friction materials to protect other materials from oxidation, so that it is not easy to fall off and has strong adhesion.

D.Expansion

When the friction material is in the high-temperature state of braking, many low-temperature materials such as fillers and resins are easy to be carbonized and burned out, resulting in the increase of internal voids of the materials, while molybdenum trioxide can better make up for it.

E.Reduce the specific gravity

The specific gravity of MoS2 crystal is 4.5-5.2. With the increase of fineness, the specific surface area also increases, and the specific gravity decreases, which reduces the weight of brake pad to a certain extent.

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Molybdenum Disulfide, as an Additive, Improves Properties of Nylon Plastic

 Nylon plastic is in the family of synthetic polymer and can replace bronze, brass, steel and aluminum as wear-resistant parts of equipment. It has good toughness, strong wear resistance, oil resistance, shock resistance, tensile and bending strength and good dimensional stability, which is mostly used in fibre cable, films, flooring, rubber reinforcement and shapes like car parts and electrical equipment.

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is used as solid lubricant and plays a very important role in industrial applications. It has a very low friction coefficient (0.03-0.06), high yield strength (3.45MPa), can be used under high temperature (350℃), various ultra-low temperature conditions, or even worked normally at 1200℃ under vacuum conditions, especially has a very good lubrication effect in high-speed mechanical parts. 

MoS2 is added as an additive to nylon materials to improve sliding and friction properties and increase the tensile strength and wear resistance of this material that is still the best choice for many bearing and wear applications.

Nylon 66+MOS2(ash black): with the addition of molybdenum disulfide, nylon 66 provides higher rigidity, hardness and dimensional stability and improves the material bearing and wear resistance as a result of the additive's structure, and its nucleating effect.  

PA6+MOS2 (ash black): adding molybdenum disulfide powder can improve the bearing capacity and wear resistance of unmodified cast nylon without affecting the erosion and fatigue resistance. It is very widely used in manufacturing gears, bearings, star wheels and sleeves.

The properties of nylon plastic nylon include good sunlight resistance power, high melting point, good colour fastness nature, high resistance against insect, bacteria, fungi, rot and other chemicals, compact modular structure, high stretching power and so on. 

The MoS2 provided by Chinatungsten Online features uniform and concentrated distribution of particle size, better dispersibility to make it can better display product characteristics in plastic products. Our regular particle sizes are super fine, technical fine, technical grade and large particle. 

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Molybdenum Disulfide As a Lubricant in Rail Transit

The lubrication in the rail traffic is mainly for wheeltrack, moving parts in locmotives, motor cars and vehicles, and bow net. Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is a good lubricating material thanks to its frictional characteristics, physical and chemical properties. 

Since the advent of rail transit, the wear of rails and rims has become a concern. When the train passes the curve, due to the action of inertial force and centripetal force, the wheel flange and the rail side will roll and slide, causing severe wear on the rail side; and when passing through a straight track, the conicity between wheel tread and wheeltrack will cause hunting, resulting in wear between the wheel rim and the inner edge of the track inevitably.

By taking some measures, such as using high-strength steel, making wheel flange matching more reasonable, adjusting track parameters, and carrying out reasonable lubrication can effectively reduce wheeltrack wear. Among them, reasonable lubrication can not only reduce wear by 30% to 80%, save fuel by more than 2%, but also help the safe driving of the vehicle due to the reduction of the friction coefficient between the wheel flange and the rail side.

There are many ways of rail lubrication: artificial oiling trolleys, track pulley, ground rail lubricators, vehicle-mounted lubrication devices, etc. Lubricants used in the lubrication devices include three types: lubricating oil, grease and solid lubricating stick. 

MoS2 is a good solid lubricant. The low friction and easy cleavage are intrinsic to the material and a result of its crystal structure. Its formed solid lubricating film lubricates sacrificially by transferring lubricant between the two mating surfaces, which helps to reduce wear and coefficient of friction, and can withstand an average load of 108Pa or more to prevent the lubricating film from breaking and causing seizure. For example, the thickness of 2.5μm molybdenum disulfide film can withstand pressures above 2800MPa.

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Using Liquid Phase Method to Produce Molybdenum Disulfide

Liquid phase method including precipitation, hydrothermal and solvothermal method, different methods exist significant differences in process step, sulfide raw material consumption, waste and water emissions. The main features of the liquid phase method are low cost of production, large production yield, high purity and controllable form. Besides, molybdenum disulfide can be prepared in different functional requirements. However, the requirements of liquid phase method for raw materials requirement are high, and the resulting product is easy reunion.

Production molybdenum disulfide by precipitation method- Making molybdenum sulfide reacts with molybdenum salt to produce insoluble molybdenum trisulfide. Then after precipitation, pyrolysis or reduction can obtain molybdenum disulfide. Using precipitation to produce molybdenum disulfide, the reaction process is simple, easy operation, low cost, high yield, which is suitable for industrial production.

 Production molybdenum disulfide by Hydrothermal method- the reaction of hydrothermal method is happen in sealed special containers, under high temperature, pressure conditions and other conditions, and water-soluble molybdenum sulfide reacts with molybdenum disulfide salt formation in water to produce water-insoluble molybdenum-disulfide. This method can generate products directly, greatly reducing or avoiding the formation of hard agglomerates. What’s more, the hydrothermal method has shorter process steps, simple equipment requirement, easy operate, less sulfide material consumption, smaller particle size and other advantages. In addition, the obvious advantages of it are eliminating exhaust gas containing hydrogen sulfide.

Production molybdenum disulfide by Solvothermal method - This method is based on the hydrothermal method, but organic solvent instead of water. Due to the diversity of organic solvents, lower boiling point and different dielectric constant, polarity, viscosity, etc., depending on the different solvent system and the target product can design new synthetic routes, expanding the scope of application of the hydrothermal method.

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