Molybdenum and Alloy Steel

Molybdenum is used efficiently and economically in alloy steel & iron to
-improve hardenability
-reduce temper embrittlement
-resist hydrogen attack & sulphide stress cracking
-increase elevated temperature strength
-improve weldability, especially in high strength low alloy steels (HSLA)

In the present section the focus is on grades and properties of Mo containing alloy steel and iron. End uses cover the whole world of engineered products for :
-Automotive, shipbuilding
-aircraft and aerospace
-Drilling, mining, processing
-Energy generation, including boilers, steam turbines and electricity generators
-Vessels, tanks, heat exchangers
-Chemical & Petrochemical processing
-Offshore; Oil Country Tubular Goods (OCTG)

In most cases molybdenum is needed to meet the high end of the application properties, which is accomplished with comparatively small molybdenum additions. In fact, with the exception of High Speed Steel and Maraging Steel the Mo content often ranges between 0.2 and 0.5% and rarely exceeds 1%.

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Molybdenum Disilicide Price - May 31, 2018

In Chinese molybdenum market, market offers have been remained weak recently due to unclear new round of tender for steel mill and weak ferro molybdenum market.

Molybdenum price shows stable, benefiting from tight supply in the molybdenum concentrate market but constrained by weak terminal demand. Affected by the environmental protection inspections and thin trading volumes, market participants mainly hold wait-and-see mentality and prices maintain stability in the downstream chemical and product market.

Shanxi Taigang calls for bids for 520 tonnes of ferro molybdenum in June, with price of RMB 108,500 per tonne, down RMB 300 per tonne from last round; Xiangtan Iron & Steel Group tenders 100 tonnes of ferro molybdenum in RMB 108,000 per tonne, down RMB 500 per tonne compared with last round.

Prices of molybdenum products on May 31, 2018

Picture of molybdenum disilicide

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Molybdenite Processing

In molybdenite processing, the molybdenite is first heated to a temperature of 700 °C (1,292 °F) and the sulfide is oxidized into molybdenum(VI) oxide by air:
2 MoS2 + 7 O2 → 2 MoO3 + 4 SO

The oxidized ore is then either heated to 1,100 °C (2,010 °F) to sublimate the oxide, or leached with ammonia, which reacts with the molybdenum(VI) oxide to form water-soluble molybdates:
MoO3 + 2 NH4OH → (NH4)2(MoO4) + H2O

Copper, an impurity in molybdenite, is less soluble in ammonia. To completely remove it from the solution, it is precipitated with hydrogen sulfide.

Pure molybdenum is produced by reduction of the oxide with hydrogen, while the molybdenum for steel production is reduced by the aluminothermic reaction with addition of iron to produce ferromolybdenum. A common form of ferromolybdenum contains 60% molybdenum.

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Molybdenum Biochemistry

The most important role of the molybdenum in living organisms is as a metal heteroatom at the active site in certain enzymes. In nitrogen fixation in certain bacteria, the nitrogenase enzyme, which is involved in the terminal step of reducing molecular nitrogen, usually contains molybdenum in the active site (though replacement of Mo with iron or vanadium is also known). The structure of the catalytic center of the enzyme is similar to that in iron-sulfur proteins: it incorporates a Fe4S3 and multiple MoFe3S3 clusters.

In 2008, evidence was reported that a scarcity of molybdenum in the Earth's early oceans was a limiting factor for nearly two billion years in the further evolution of eukaryotic life (which includes all plants and animals) as eukaryotes cannot fix nitrogen, and must therefore acquire most of their oxidized nitrogen suitable for making organic nitrogen compounds, or the organics themselves (like proteins) from prokaryotic bacteria.

The scarcity of molybdenum resulted from the relative lack of oxygen in the early ocean. Most molybdenum compounds have low solubility in water, but the molybdate ion MoO42− is soluble and forms when molybdenum-containing minerals are in contact with oxygen and water. Once oxygen made by early life appeared in seawater, it helped dissolve molybdenum into soluble molybdate from minerals on the sea bottom, making it available for the first time to nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and allowing them to provide more fixed usable nitrogen compounds for higher forms of life.

Although oxygen once promoted nitrogen fixation via making molybdenum available in water, it also directly poisons nitrogenase enzymes. Thus, in Earth's ancient history, after oxygen arrived in large quantities in Earth's air and water, organisms that continued to fix nitrogen in aerobic conditions were required to isolate and protect their nitrogen-fixing enzymes in heterocysts, or similar structures protecting them from too much oxygen. This structural isolation of nitrogen fixation reactions from oxygen in aerobic organisms continues to the present..Molybdenite

Though molybdenum forms compounds with various organic molecules, including carbohydrates and amino acids, it is transported throughout the human body as MoO42−.At least 50 molybdenum-containing enzymes were known by 2002, mostly in bacteria, and their number is increasing with every year;[59][60] those enzymes include aldehyde oxidase, sulfite oxidase and xanthine oxidase. In some animals, and in humans, the oxidation of xanthine to uric acid, a process of purine catabolism, is catalyzed by xanthine oxidase, a molybdenum-containing enzyme. The activity of xanthine oxidase is directly proportional to the amount of molybdenum in the body. However, an extremely high concentration of molybdenum reverses the trend and can act as an inhibitor in both purine catabolism and other processes. Molybdenum concentrations also affect protein synthesis, metabolism and growth.

In animals and plants a tricyclic compound called molybdopterin (which, despite the name, contains no molybdenum) is reacted with molybdate to form a complete molybdenum-containing cofactor called molybdenum cofactor. Save for the phylogenetically-ancient molybdenum nitrogenases discussed above, which fix nitrogen in some bacteria and cyanobacteria, all molybdenum-using enzymes so far identified in nature use the molybdenum cofactor. Molybdenum enzymes in plants and animals catalyze the oxidation and sometimes reduction of certain small molecules, as part of the regulation of nitrogen, sulfur and carbon cycles.

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The Molybdenum Properties

1. Physical properties
In its pure form, molybdenum is a silvery-grey metal with a Mohs hardness of 5.5. It has a melting point of 2,623 °C (4,753 °F); of the naturally occurring elements, only tantalum, osmium, rhenium, tungsten, and carbon have higher melting points.Weak oxidation of molybdenum starts at 300 °C. It has one of the lowest coefficients of thermal expansion among commercially used metals.The tensile strength of molybdenum wires increases about 3 times, from about 10 to 30 GPa, when their diameter decreases from ~50–100 nm to 10 nm.Molybdenite ,Molybdenite on quartz

2. Compounds and chemistry
Molybdenum is a transition metal with an electronegativity of 2.16 on the Pauling scale and a standard atomic weight of 95.96 g/mol.It does not visibly react with oxygen or water at room temperature, and the bulk oxidation occurs at temperatures above 600 °C, resulting in molybdenum trioxide:
2 Mo + 3 O2 → 2 MoO3

The trioxide is volatile and sublimates at high temperatures. This prevents formation of a continuous protective oxide layer, which would stop the bulk oxidation of metal.Molybdenum has several oxidation states, the most stable being +4 and +6 (bolded in the table). The chemistry and the compounds show more similarity to those of tungsten than that of chromium. An example is the instability of molybdenum(III) and tungsten(III) compounds as compared with the stability of the chromium(III) compounds. The highest oxidation state is common in the molybdenum(VI) oxide (MoO3), whereas the normal sulfur compound is molybdenum disulfide MoS2.

Molybdenum(VI) oxide is soluble in strong alkaline water, forming molybdates (MoO42−). Molybdates are weaker oxidants than chromates, but they show a similar tendency to form complex oxyanions by condensation at lower pH values, such as [Mo7O24]6− and [Mo8O26]4−. Polymolybdates can incorporate other ions into their structure, forming polyoxometalates.The dark-blue phosphorus-containing heteropolymolybdate P[Mo12O40]3− is used for the spectroscopic detection of phosphorus.[16] The broad range of oxidation states of molybdenum is reflected in various molybdenum chlorides:

Molybdenum(II) chloride MoCl2 (yellow solid)molybdenum
Molybdenum(III) chloride MoCl3 (dark red solid)
Molybdenum(IV) chloride MoCl4 (black solid)
Molybdenum(V) chloride MoCl5 (dark green solid)
Molybdenum(VI) chloride MoCl6 (brown solid)
The structure of the MoCl2 is composed of Mo6Cl84+ clusters with four chloride ions to compensate the charge.

Like chromium and some other transition metals, molybdenum is able to form quadruple bonds, such as in Mo2(CH3COO)4. This compound can be transformed into Mo2Cl84−, which also has a quadruple bond.

The oxidation state 0 is possible with carbon monoxide as ligand, such as in molybdenum hexacarbonyl, Mo(CO)6.

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Different Views Toward Chinese Molybdenum Market

Insiders hold different views toward Chinese molybdenum market: stabilization or decline, according to research from ChinaTungsten Online.

Some insiders are more bearish on short-term molybdenum market that the fall in ferro molybdenum transaction prices in return presses molybdenum concentrate price. The following keys are the main reasons:

First, affected by the continuous drop in international molybdenum price, traders lower their expectations for ferro molybdenum price, resulting in actual transaction prices below manufacturers' offers.

Second, part of manufacturers may cut product profits for more sales because they need capital repatriation at the end of the month.

Third, several steel mills are understood to postpone ferro molybdenum tender on purpose in order to put press on ferro molybdenum enterprises.

Others forecast that the market will maintain stability in the short term. They think that molybdenum concentrate price will remain unchanged, supporting downstream molybdenum products and restricting enterprises to sell at low prices. The reasons are as following:

First, spot molybdenum concentrates are still tight and major molybdenum mines face little pressure from stocks and funds. Therefore, molybdenum raw material market will stabilize.

Second, molybdenum concentrate price has been exceeded RMB 1,600.t since the Spring Festival and the market without low-cost spot goods will support market price.

Third, although international molybdenum price declines, but with the closed import and export channel, the supply and demand in China will not be affected.

On the whole, the later market trend is not only depending on the mentality of insiders, but also market supply and demand. How steel biddings will perform after the drop of international molybdenum price needs to be the focus of the market.

Prices of molybdenum products on May 25, 2018

Picture of molybdenum powder

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The Molybdenum Sheet

Standard: ASTM B386
Material: Mo >99.95%
Density: >10.2g/cc

Molybdenum sheet is made of the material of molybdenum, so that molybdenum sheet owns the properties of molybdenum. Molybdenum sheet can stand extreme temperatures and keep its strength and stiffness at high temperatures. Molybdenum sheet also has good thermal conductivity and lower thermal expansion. It can provide excellent corrosion resistance that is similar to tungsten sheet. Our molybdenum products are widely used in aviation, aerospace, nuclear high-temperature furnace, glass, ceramic, crystal production, medical, illumination and vacuum sputtering etc. molybdenum sheet, suitable for light, electric vacuum device and electric semiconductor device.

Molybdenum sheet is processed to obtain maximum ductility for applications involving bending, spinning, drawing or stamping. It is this objective that also gives the impression of molybdenum sheet special advantages. If the customer designates their specific application, we can supply the best material suited for their use, to meet their requirements of product-molybdenum sheet. It is this objective that also gives the impression of molybdenum sheet special advantages. If the customer designates their specific application, we can supply the best material suited for their use, to meet their requirements of product-molybdenum sheet.

Application:

Molybdenum sheet is used for making electric light source parts, components of electric vacuum and electric power semiconductor. It is also used for producing molybdenum boats, heat shield and heat bodies in high temperature furnace.

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The Molybdenum Crucible

Standard: GB/T 17992-1999                               
Impurity content: <=0.03%
Mo Content: >=99.95%
Density: >9.8 g/cm3
Working temperature: >1100°C
Content Technique Density Size
Mo >=99.95% Forging >=10.1g/cm3 (10-130mm) dia. x (10-2mm)
Mo >=99.95% Sintering >=9.8g/cm3 (100-500mm) dia. x (50-700mm)

Most molybdenum crucible is produced by sintering pure molybdenum. The reason to use pure molybdenum as raw material is to prevent other metals melting in the molybdenum crucible from mingling impurities. Because molybdenum crucible has high-temperature resistance, low pollution and other excellent properties, molybdenum crucible is widely used in various industries. According to the required diameter, thickness, tilt angle, we can produce a various shapes and sizes of molybdenum crucible to meet your need.

Molybdenum crucible is a very important and essential tool in many industries. Molybdenum crucible can be used in smelting and rare earth metallurgy, mechanism process, electronics, artificial crystals, coating technology industries, such as: crystal materials, the sapphire growth, vacuum coating production, quartz glass melting furnace, smelting furnace and silicon crystal furnace and so on.

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The Molybdenum Wire

Molybdenum is a metal silvery in color with properties that make it one of the most prized industrial metals. It melts at 4,753 degrees Fahrenheit (2,623 degrees Celsius) - one of the highest melting points of any metal - and has the ability to withstand very high pressure and temperature without softening or expanding much. These properties make molybdenum wire useful in various products, like automotive and aircraft components, electric vacuum devices, light bulbs, heating elements, and high-temperature furnaces. Molybdenum wire can also be used for printer needles and other printer parts. Depending on what the molybdenum wire is to be used for, it can be made from pure molybdenum, from a mix of molybdenum and other materials such as potassium silicate, or from alloys of molybdenum and other metals, for example tungsten.

Molybdenum wire is often used to make parts that provide structural support, even at very high temperatures. For example, it is commonly used for various furnace components, like heating elements, outlets and windings. Its high melting point makes molybdenum wire suitable for specialized, high-temperature furnaces featuring hydrogen or vacuum atmospheres.

Another common use for molybdenum wire is as parts for light bulbs. For example, it can be used in the manufacture of supports for lamp filaments made from tungsten, to make leads for halogen lamp bulbs, and to make electrodes for gas discharge lamps and tubes. This type of wire is also used in the windshields of airplanes, where it functions as a heating element, providing defrosting. Molybdenum wire is also used in the manufacture of electron tubes and power tube grids.

The surface of the wire can either be clean or coated. Coated wire is black in color, because it is covered in oxides and lubricants. The tensile strength of wire is often an important consideration in manufacturing, and also affects the appearance of the wire: the more tensile strength, the less straight the wire is.

Molybdenum wire commonly comes in sizes from 0.001 inches (0.025 mm) in diameter, to 0.25 inches (6.35 mm) in diameter. Its size can be measured either in inches, or in mils, with 1 mil being equal to one thousandth of an inch. For very thin wire, the size is expressed in the form of weight of a certain length of wire, rather than by diameter. Molybdenum is similar in appearance to lead, and even received its name from the Greek word for lead, molybdos, because it was often mistaken for lead in ancient times.

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Molybdenum Crucible Applications

1.Description of Molybdenum Crucible
Mo content: Over than 99.95%.
Density: Over than 9.8g/cm3
Diameter: 100-220 mm
Height: 100-400 mm
Temperature: 1100 C
Packing: Plastic inside and Wooden case outside

2.There are three technologies using in making molybdenum crucible, as following:
(1) pressing --> sintering --> tooling.
(2) pressing --> sintering --> forging --> tooling.
(3) sheets --> deep drawing --> tooling

3.Molybdenum Crucible Applications:

Molybdenum crucible is sintered or forged from the ultimate material—molybdenum powder. Generally speaking, molybdenum crucible is used pure molybdenum, for its purity can prevent melting metal powder from mingling. The density of molybdenum crucible is more than 9.8g/cm3, and its working temperature is among 1100℃. Therefore, it is another ring choice, besides tungsten crucible in metal melting industry.

Molybdenum crucible is widely used in metallurgical industry, rare earth industry, artificial crystal and machinery.

Molybdenum crucible is widely used in metallurgical industry, rare earth industry, artificial crystal, and machinery.

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Two Kinds of Molybdenum Electrode Material

1.Molybdenum electrode
Appearance: Silver gray metallic luster
No defects (lose side, lose corner, divide layer, crackle)
To bend or align according to the needs of users
Density: 9.8g/cm3
purity : Mo 99.95%
Dimension : (14-20) * (14-20) * L L max 500mm
Main applications: Molybdenum electrode is used as electro-heat equipment of the glass fiber kiln
The impurity content accords with GB3462-82 standard

2.Molybdenum electrode plate
Dark brown , silver gray metallic luster if washed by the alkali (produced according to user's request )
Purity : Mo 99.95%
Density: 10.15g/m3
Dimension : (3 - 25)* (50 -500) *L L max800mm (Unit weight is not more than 40 kgs) special specification should be consulted by both parties
Main applications: Molybdenum electrode plate can be used as various kinds of heating equipment of glass fiber kiln, liquid-flow hole panel, etc.
The impurity content accords with GB3876-83 standard

3.Molybdenum electrode bars
Appearance: Bright silver gray metallic luster . (process according to user's drawing , surface finish is higher)
purity : Mo 99.93%
Density: 10.15g/cm3
Unit weight: The special dimension of various kinds of Molybdenum electrodes under 70kgs is consulted by both parties.
Dimension: produced according to the needs of users : (φ20 - φ100) *L (mm)
Main applications: Molybdenum electrode bar is mainly used as the furnace , electric boosting glass kiln electrode , etc
The impurity content accords with the standard of GB/t17792-1999.

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Titanium-Zirconium-Molybdenum Alloy (TZM)

The earliest molybdenum alloy is titanium-zirconium-molybdenum alloy (TZM) in industry. Titanium-zirconium-molybdenum alloy (TZM) is famous for it's properties of higher strength, better electronic and heat conductivity and corrosion resistance, lower ductility and vapor pressure, higher temperature of recrystallization and relatively easier to be processed than other refractory metals. TZM with the least content of titanium, zirconium and carbon is in the leader in these alloys. TZM is a kind of alloy with (0.5 titanium, 0.08 zirconium, 0.02 carbon) and the margin of TZM is molybdenum. There are two methods of producing TZM: smelting process and powder-alchemical process.

Applications:

TZM is widely used in aviation, aerospace industry, such as: materials used for the nozzle, buried pipes and electronic tubes and so on. TZM also is applied to semiconductor products and medical field，for example, the cathode assembles in X-ray target. TZM can also be used as heating elements in high-temperature furnace, heat shield, light alloy forging etc.

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Relationships of Copper and Molybdenum to Iron Metabolism

Both copper and molybdenum influence the internal transport and release of iron. There is evidence that copper, as a component of ceruloplasmin, increases the rate of oxidation of ferrous to ferric iron for transport by plasma transferrin; and that molybdenum, as a component of xanthine oxidase, participates in the reduction of cellular ferric to ferrous ferritin.

An excess of either copper or molybdenum, by giving rise to a relatively undissociable Cu-Mo-S complex, may produce a deficit of the metal in marginal supply. As dietary excess of copper is known to be common in the United States, and preliminary data suggest that molybdenum intake may not be optimal, it is possible that a conditioned deficit of molybdenum may contribute to abnormalities of iron metabolism and utilization.

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Heavy Wait-and-See Atmosphere in Chinese Molybdenum Market

International molybdenum oxide price rises slightly, which do not active the market in China. At present, molybdenum smelting factories, chemical and product enterprises keep high product prices owing to high production costs. The average price in Chinese molybdenum mines hovers around RMB 1,640/t and mainstream transaction prices of molybdenum concentrate are RMB 1,630-1,640/t. In the short term, the tightening availability of low-price molybdenum raw materials will continue.

Molybdenum raw material prices and bid prices in steel mills are quite different amid ferromolybdenum manufacturers show cost overhang. Although market quotation ranges between RMB 109,000-111,000/t, buyers operate cautiously. It is hard to conclude deals at the prices. Steel biddings, and then, a vacuum, so some manufacturers start to stop or cut production, the spot goods will decrease.

A now round of environmental protection inspection will be carried out, focusing on Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan provinces. Affected by that, output of sodium molybdate and ammonium heptamolybdate declines greatly. But viewing from the performance of molybdenum chemical products transactions, though the production of above products falls as well as the trading volume, supply and demand are in balance.

Trading in Chinese molybdenum market is thin and actual transaction prices are lower than market quotations. Most enterprisers are now delivering their goods, so the offers stabilize temporarily. Demand for downstream deep processing products is not improved amid the price of molybdenum sheet stabilizes and molybdenum rod and wire markets are weak. The current market trend will continue.

Prices of molybdenum products on May 15, 2018

Picture of sodium molybdate

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The Molybdenum-Copper Heat Sinks

Molybdenum-copper heat sinks are composites of molybdenum and copper. Similar to W-Cu, CTE of Mo-Cu can also be tailored by adjusting the content of molybdenum. Mo-Cu is much lighter than W-Cu so that it is suitable for aeronautic and astronautic applications.They are widely used in applications such as optoelectronics packages, Microwave Packages, C Packages, Laser Submounts, etc.

1. Advantages:
-High thermal conductivity since no sintering additives have been used
-Excellent hermeticity
-Relatively small density
-Stampable sheets available (Mo content no more than 75 wt%)
-Semi-finished or finished (Ni/Au plated) parts available.

2. Technical Data:

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The Advantages And Applications of Molybdenum Copper

Molybdenum Copper alloy is the composite material of Molybdenum and Copper. It has the similar performances as Tungsten Copper alloy. But its density is less than Tungsten Copper alloy’s, so it is more suitable for spaceflight and navigation industries.

1. Typical Physical and Mechanical Properties:

2. Advantages of Molybdenum Copper (MoCu):

Thermal expansion can be design; High thermal conductivity; Precision flatness capability; Bondable gold plating; Thickness from .004" to .500"; Zero corner radius; Integrated ribs; Precision complex geometry; Low thermal expansion; Good electrical conductivity; High wear resistance; More lighter than W-Cu.

3. Typical Areas Applications:

Heat Sinks and Spreaders
Microwave Carriers
Microelectronic Package Bases and Housings
Ceramic Substrate Carriers
GaAs and Silicon Device Mounts
Laser Diode Mounts
Surface Mount Package Conductors
Microprocessor Lids
Rocket Parts
Optical Packages
Power Packages
Butterfly Packages

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International Molybdenum Price Fell Sharply in May

Although transactions of high-price molybdenum concentrate are rare and international molybdenum price falls sharply, Chinese sellers keep stable quotations. Downstream purchasers decide to hold back purchasing because of cost overhang and poor performance in international market. Considering the tightening availability of molybdenum concentrate and some low-price transactions, the raw material market will be in a stalemate in the short term.

Offers from most ferromolybdenum manufacturers stabilize at RMB 109,000-110,000/t. most private enterprises expressed that they will not sell when the price is lower than the cost. Market participants now mainly wait and see to avoid risks and thus market enquiry is quiet.

Molybdenum chemical enterprises face pressure of high production costs of raw materials, transaction prices and environmental protection inspection, so they have to raise product offers. The environmental checks result in unstable production of some enterprises, even stopping production, which increase the cost to some extent. Meanwhile, the weak demand in the whole terminal market decreases high-price transactions.

Molybdenum product market maintains stability at present. Molybdenum powder enterprises carry on the order delivery normally, waiting for a new round of purchasing. The price and quantity for downstream deep processing products are both stable. Part of enterprises expressed that recent orders decrease, but as they are busy with delivery of pre-orders, the quotation is not affected. In the short term, molybdenum product market will stabilize.

Prices of molybdenum products on May 10, 2018

Picture of molybdenum trioxide

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Molybdenum's Influence on Rats at Different Copper Levels of Diet

1.Male WAG/Cpb inbred rats fed on rations with approximately 1-5 rng copper/kg (deficient), 6.0 mg copper/kg (adequate) and 25.0mg copper/kg (excess) are supplemented with varying amounts of molybdenum (0, 50, 150 and 500 mg/kg diet) (as ammonium heptamolybdate) and the effect on the copper concentration of blood, plasma, liver and kidney,the caeruloplasmin activity of plasma and the molybdenum concentration of liver and kidney are studied. Copper is supplied as copper(II) nitrate.

2. Molybdenum increases the copper concentration of blood, plasma, liver and kidney and the molybdenum concentration of liver and kidney.

3. In the plasma of molybdenum-supplemented rats the presence of a copper-containing fraction is demonstrated, the copper of which did not react with dithiocarbamate and was not related to caeruloplasmin. The copper in this fraction is not able to increase the caeruloplasmin activity in the plasma of copper-deficient molybdenum-supplemented rats. The copper concentration of the erythrocytes does not seem to have been increased by the molybdenum treatment.

4.When compared to copper-adequate rats the effect of molybdenum on the copper distribution is reduced both by copper deficiency and copper excess. This decreased effect of molybdenum is explained by reduced uptake or retention of molybdenum in the body as observed in the liver and kidney.

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The Element Molybdenum

Atomic Number: 42
Atomic Weight: 95.96
Melting Point: 2896 K (2623°C or 4753°F)
Boiling Point: 4912 K (4639°C or 8382°F)
Density: 10.2 grams per cubic centimeter
Phase at Room Temperature: Solid
Element Classification: Metal
Period Number: 5    Group Number: 6    Group Name: none
Estimated Crustal Abundance: 1.2 milligrams per kilogram
Estimated Oceanic Abundance: 1×10-2 milligrams per liter
Number of Stable Isotopes: 6   (View all isotope data)
Ionization Energy: 7.092 eV
Oxidation States: +6

Molybdenum was discovered by Carl Welhelm Scheele, a Swedish chemist, in 1778 in a mineral known as molybdenite (MoS2) which had been confused as a lead compound. Molybdenum was isolated by Peter Jacob Hjelm in 1781. Today, most molybdenum is obtained from molybdenite, wulfenite (PbMoO4) and powellite (CaMoO4). These ores typically occur in conjunction with ores of tin and tungsten. Molybdenum is also obtained as a byproduct of mining and processing tungsten and copper.

Molybdenum has a high melting point and is used to make the electrodes of electrically heated glass furnaces. Some electrical filaments are also made from molybdenum. The metal is used to make some missile and aircraft parts and is used in the nuclear power industry. Molybdenum is also used as a catalyst in the refining of petroleum.

Molybdenum is primarily used as an alloying agent in steel. When added to steel in concentrations between 0.25% and 8%, molybdenum forms ultra-high strength steels that can withstand pressures up to 300,000 pounds per square inch. Molybdenum also improves the strength of steel at high temperatures. When alloyed with nickel, molybdenum forms heat and corrosion resistant materials used in the chemical industry.

Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2), one of molybdenum's compounds, is used as a high temperature lubricant. Molybdenum trioxide (MoO3), another molybdenum compound, is used to adhere enamels to metals. Other molybdenum compounds include: molybdic acid (H2MoO4), molybdenum hexafluoride (MoF6) and molybdenum phosphide (MoP2).

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Molybdenum Applications

Molybdenum is a silvery grey metal that is not found in a pure state in nature. It is usually associated with other elements, such as is the case of sulfurated ores, from which one can also obtain copper. Thus it is common for molybdenum to be regarded as a byproduct of the copper extraction operation.

In the periodic table of chemical elements, molybdenum is identified with number 42 and the symbol Mo. It melts at a temperature of 2,610 degrees Celsius.

Its name originates from the Greek word, “molybdos”, meaning “lead-like”, in a clear allusion to its color. Although some say that it was known in ancient times, it was only during the World War I that its use in steel alloys was made known. Molybdenum was utilized instead of wolfram (aka tungsten) that in those times was scarce, and so began its commercial application.

Its main characteristics are durability, strength and resistance to corrosion and high temperatures.

Molybdenum is a metal used as raw material in order to obtain alloys, among which more resistant steel stands out. Approximately two thirds of this metal is used for this purpose, also known as inox, with contents up to 6%.

The steel alloy withstands high temperatures and pressures, being very resistant. This is why it is used in construction, to manufacture airplane parts and wrought car parts. Molybdenum wires are utilized in electronic tubes and the metal also functions as electrode in glass furnaces.

Among its many applications is a superalloy that can be obtained from a nickel base, to produce catalysts which are used to eliminate sulfur in the oil industry.

In addition, it is utilized in the industrial process of lubricants (molybdenum disulfide is resistant to high temperatures, reduces wear and friction of motor parts – as may be the case of vehicle brakes), in the manufacture of linings and solvents, in the chemical industry (pigments for plastics, paints and rubber compounds) and in the electronic industry (electric conductors).

Molybdenum is also deemed to be a strategic material and has multiple applications in the aerospace and automobile industries, for surgical tools, as well as for manufacturing light bulbs (filament) and LCD screens, for water treatment and even for applying laser beams.

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What Is Molybdenum Deficiency?

Most cases of molybdenum deficiency occur in those who were born without the enzyme required to break down the mineral, resulting in very rare recessive metabolism disorders. There has only been one well-documented case of acquired molybdenum deficiency. The patient developed rapid heart and respiratory rates, night blindness and eventually became comatose.

Molybdenum requirements are relatively low in humans. In addition, molybdenum can be easily obtained through a diet of beans, dark green leafy vegetables, and certain grains. In fact, lack of molybdenum has never been observed in a completely healthy patient. Those with the greatest risk of developing it are patients being fed intravenously. For those who suffer from molybdenum deficiency, change in diet or taking molybdenum supplements can reverse the condition.

Though the two are connected, molybdenum deficiency should not be confused with molybdenum cofactor deficiency. Molybdenum cofactor deficiency is a rare metabolic disorder in which the body lacks the xanthine dehydrogenase enzyme, the aldehyde oxidase enzyme, and the sulfite oxidase enzyme. These enzymes are all required to metabolize xanthine, a base that is changed into the uric acid needed for healthy brain function. Molybdenum cofactor deficiency can result in severe neurological symptoms including seizures and coma.

Molybdenum as a mineral has several benefits for the human body. It is essential to liver function, helping the liver filter the body's blood. Molybdenum regulates calcium, magnesium, and copper metabolism. It also facilitates the body’s use of iron, which is necessary to normal growth and development. Molybdenum has been associated with bone growth and lowered risk of tooth decay. Some studies even link this mineral with low risk of stomach and esophagus cancer.

Too much molybdenum can be bad for the body too. Large amount of molybdenum can cause the body to use copper or alter the activity of alkaline phosphatase. Some side effects of too much molybdenum are diarrhea, anemia, and swelling of joints. While getting too much molybdenum is not good for the body, it is just as rare as molybdenum deficiency, because the body quickly excretes the mineral if it is consumed in large quantities.

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Molybdenum in the Environment

Molybdenum differs from the other micronutrients in soils in that it is less soluble in acid soils and more soluble in alkaline soils, the result being that its availability to plants is sensitive to pH and drainage conditions. Some plants can have up to 500 ppm of the metal when they grow on alkaline soils.

Molybdenite is the chief mineral ore, with wulfenite being less important. Some molybdenite is obtained as a by-product of tungsen and copper production. The main mining areas are the USA, Chile, Canada and Russia, with world production being around 90.000 tonnes per year, and reserves amounting to 12 million tonnes of which 5 million tonnes are in the USA.

Health effects of molybdenum

Based on animal experiments, molybdenum and its compounds are highly toxic. Some evidence of liver dysfunction with hyperbilirubinemia has been reported in workmen chronically exposed in a Soviet Mo-Cu plant. In addition, signs of gout have been found in factory workers and among inhabitants of Mo-rich areas of Armenia. The main features were joint pains in the knees, hands, feet, articular deformities, erythema, and edema of the joint areas

Environmental effects of molybdenum

Molybdenum is essential to all species. As with other trace metals, though, what is essential in tiny amounts can be highly toxic at larger doses. Animal experiment have shown that too much molybdenum causes fetal deformities. Fodder with more than 10 ppm of molybdenum would put most livestok at risk.

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Processing of Molybdenite

In molybdenite processing, the molybdenite is first heated to a temperature of 700 °C (1,292 °F) and the sulfide is oxidized into molybdenum(VI) oxide by air: 2 MoS2 + 7 O2 → 2 MoO3 + 4 SO2  The oxidized ore is then either heated to 1,100 °C (2,010 °F) to sublimate the oxide, or leached with ammonia which reacts with the molybdenum(VI) oxide to form water-soluble molybdates:  MoO3 + 2 NH4OH → (NH4)2(MoO4) + H2O

Copper, an impurity in molybdenite, is less soluble in ammonia. To completely remove it from the solution, it is precipitated with hydrogen sulfide. Pure molybdenum is produced by reduction of the oxide with hydrogen, while the molybdenum for steel production is reduced by the aluminothermic reaction with addition of iron to produce ferromolybdenum. A common form of ferromolybdenum contains 60% molybdenum.

Molybdenum has a value of approximately $30,000 per tonne as of August 2009. It maintained a price at or near $10,000 per tonne from 1997 through 2003, and reached, due to increased demand, a peak of $103,000 per tonne in June 2005. In 2008 the London Metal Exchange announced that molybdenum would be traded as a commodity on the exchange.

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